Educational strategies are present all around the globe in different forms. To get a deeper understanding of that, we will start by taking a closer look at Asia.
In the last decades, new economic powers have been rising in Asia.[1] The economic growth in for example Japan, South Korea, China, Taiwan, Singapore and Hong Kong, has led to an elevation of the average living standard and the growth of the middle class.[2] Some of these countries have known a longer history of economic prosperity but others are going through a transition which elevates their average living standard significantly. This development has led to the rise of a new class consisting of skilled workers and capitalists and a growing demand for academic credentials in the rising knowledge-based economy.[3]
Meanwhile in other parts of the world, the economic situation can be very different to the situation in Asia, leading to very different needs for academic credentials and strategies that are used to obtain these. How these differences shape the stream of global student migration, might give a deeper understanding of what educational strategies are useful to secure a competitive position in the labor market in different parts of the world.
The rise of a new world power: China
Among the rising economies in Asia, one country in particular stands out; China. Of all upcoming economies in the east -the so called ‘Asian Tigers’- China has made a remarkable economic development over the last twenty years.[4] With the shift towards a knowledge-based economy, China has entered the arena of competition within the global knowledge economy. Since southeast Asia is highly populated, this change might have a strong influence on educational strategies resulting in both national- and international migration patterns of students seeking out for valuable academic credentials.
The popularity of Chinese universities has grown along with the increasing demand for knowledge. A clear example of that, is the competitive Beijing University which receives over a million applications each year while having a very limited capacity.[5] The high demand for knowledge and the substantial young population of China has led to an enormous pressure on national educational institutes.[6] It is very likely that for that reason, Chinese students become motivated to seek an education abroad.
Within the global migration patterns of students, a strong migration of Chinese students is indeed noticeable since China is the biggest source of international students in the world.[7] Yet, the strong competition for local universities is just one incentive to seek education abroad.
Another motivation for international student migration, is the accumulation of ‘social-‘ and ‘cultural capital’, in particular that of western societies.[8] In China, knowledge about western society and western credentials are highly valued and for that reason a strong driving factor to seek education in the western world.[9]
Seeking education in the west is costly and therefore exclusive for the East Asian elite.[10] The economic development of China has led to a growth of this elite class which has increased the possibility to obtain these western credentials. The global migration pattern from China to the USA follows this trend. While in the year 1999 46.949 Chinese students found their way to the United States, the number increased significantly to 124.225 students in 2009.[11] Even though the cause of this migration pattern might not be exclusive to China’s economic development alone, it is very likely that it is of strong influence since tuition fees in the USA are known to be very high.
Seeking academic credentials in the west, can be used by the Chinese elite to bypass a highly competitive national educational system and simultaneously obtain valuable western credentials. By doing so, the students might secure a strong competitive position in the rising Chinese economy and increase their chance on economic success.
Educational strategies of the Swedish middle-class
While in some parts of the world migration for the purpose of education can be a valuable and rewarding strategy, it might not represent the same value in other regions around the world. Since the student migration from developing countries to developed countries is significantly higher than those from one developed country to another, it is interesting to learn more about the educational strategies of students in the developed world.[12]
A country that is generally perceived as part of the developed world, is Sweden. The reason that the Swedish approach towards educational strategies is particularly interesting, is because of the fact that in contrast to a more widely spread ‘liberal welfare state regime’, Sweden is known for its ‘social-democratic welfare regime’.[13] The main difference between the two, is that the liberal regime has a very limited interference of the state in the production and allocation of welfare while in the social-democratic regime the interference of the state is stronger.[14] In the educational system these differences become visible in for example tuition fees. While Sweden and Scandinavia in general, is known to have primarily state-funded education, liberal welfare state regimes such as the Anglo-Saxon countries are known for their high tuition fees.
A market in which education is free, reduces the financial limitation to seek education. Instead of financial means, the importance of other assets might therefore be emphasized. A clear example of that within primary- and secondary education, is the enrollment of Swedish middle-class children in extra-curricular organized activities with the purpose of expanding their life-skills and thereby the prospects of future success.[15]
Within Swedish higher education, the need for extra-curricular activities comes forward in a different way. Driven by the needs of a globalizing world market, many Swedish study programs offer possibilities to obtain foreign credentials in order to give additional value to the program.[16] Within the Swedish law program for example, globalization has led to an increasing demand for knowledge of foreign legal systems which has resulted in a higher status for law programs with an international outlook.[17] Swedish law students who are familiar with both domestic- and international law, have an advantage over those who are exclusively trained in national legislation.[18]
Unlike many Chinese students, the vast majority of Swedish students does not pursue a full degree abroad. Instead, they make use of bi-lateral agreements to acquire foreign credentials.[19] The most popular countries to obtain these, are the UK, Germany, France and other western European countries.[20] Compared to the popularity of the earlier mentioned countries, the USA is far behind.[21] A conclusion based on this data might be that foreign credentials are valued in Sweden as long as they come from other western European countries. The cost and effort to obtain American credentials do not seems to be rewarding enough.
Educational strategies in the Netherlands
In the globalizing world of today, Dutch middle- and higher-class families have developed different strategies to cope with the increasing internationalization of the world. One of these, is by sending their children to international schools which have expanded rapidly within the last thirty years.[22] At the international schools, classes are given in both Dutch and English and regularly extra-curricular activities with an international outlook are organized.[23]
The parents of children attending these international schools can often be identified as either ‘dedicated cosmopolitans’ or ‘pragmatic cosmopolitans’.[24] The dedicated cosmopolitans can be described as people with a strong cosmopolitan outlook on the world with core values such as a flexible- and open mind towards other cultures and the acceptance and understanding that comes with it.[25] Other features describing these people are a sense of world citizenship, equality of all people and a focus on individuals instead of nations.[26] Pragmatic cosmopolitans emphasize the benefits coming with mastering foreign languages and a deeper understanding of foreign cultures. Instead of deeply embedded cosmopolitan beliefs, the competitive advantages in relation to students attending non-international schools are of high importance.[27] These beliefs reach further than acquiring a competitive position on the labor market. Many pragmatic cosmopolitans experience globalization at their workplaces and are convinced of the necessity to be comfortable in an international work environment.[28]
For these reasons their children are sent to international schools, to have a competitive advantage over students with a more national focus.
Conclusion
To secure a competitive position on the future labor market, educational strategies in different countries are diverse. The rapid expansion of the middle-class in China and its young population, might be responsible for a strong impulse to international student migration where in particular western countries are popular to acquire valuable credentials. The strategy of migrating to the west, can be applied to bypass the competitive national education system and obtain unique western credentials. Since these credentials are valued highly in China, the student secures a competitive position in the Chinese labor market by having something different to offer than the majority of Chinese students.
While this strategy might be very useful for a developing country like China, it loses some of its value in the already developed countries. One of these countries is Sweden. Since the quality of Swedish education is high and not unimportant free of charge, the incentive to seek a full education abroad might be weaker. Yet, the value of internationalization is widely acknowledged which has given an impulse to the use of bi-lateral agreements. Programs offering the possibility to study a semester abroad tend to be more prestigious and popular than those who do not. Though, the focus of this form of internationalization is of a different nature than that of many Chinese students, since the majority of the degree is completed in the country of origin. Foreign credentials in a developed country like Sweden, might therefore be seen as a valuable ‘topping’ compared to students who lack these. This competitive advantage can be useful for a stronger position on the future labor market.
Due to international student migration, transnational educational strategies become very visible in higher education. Though, many of these strategies start already while students are attending secondary education. A clear example of that, is the rapidly growing amount of international schools in the Netherlands. The main objective of these schools is to add additional value in comparison to regular high schools and function as a steppingstone towards an international career. The parents of children attending these schools, are generally aware of the process of globalization. Attending bilingual education with an international outlook, provides their children a comparative advantage over children who do not. As a result of that, the competitive position of their children in the future labor market in strengthened which increases the chance on a successful career.
References
Brooks, Rachel & Waters, Johanna. Student Mobilities, Migration and the Internationalization of Higher Education. (1st edn Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011).
Börjesson, Mikael., Broady, Donald. The social Profile of Swedish Law Students: National Divisions and Transnational Strategies. Retfaerd, 3:114 (2006). http://retfaerd.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Retfaerd_114_2006_3_s80_107.pdf. (Accessed 25 October 2019).
Cavallar, Georg. Kant’s Embedded Cosmopolitanism. (1st edn Göttingen: De Gruyter, 2015).
Perkins, Richard & Neumayer, Eric. Geographies of educational mobilities: exploring the uneven flows of international students. The Geographical Journal, vol. 180 no.3 (2014). DOI: 10.1111/geoj.12045.
Sjödin, Daniel., Roman, Christine. Family practices among Swedish parents: extracurricular activities and social class. European Societies, 20:5 (2018). DOI: 10.1080/14616696.2018.1473622
Weenink, Don. Cosmopolitanism as a Form of Capital: Parents Preparing their Children for a Globalizing World. Sociology. vol. 42 no.6 (2008), https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.its.uu.se/stable/pdf/42857214.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A172e28bf2118744bd588f74388c2eeb8. (Accessed 25 October 2019).
[1] Brooks, Rachel., Waters, Johanna. Student Mobilities, Migration and the Internationalization of Higher Education. (1st edn Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011) p.46.
[2] Ibid.
[3] Ibid.
[4] Ibid.
[5] Ibid.
[6] Ibid.
[7] Perkins, Richard., Neumayer, Eric. Geographies of educational mobilities: exploring the uneven flows of international students. The geographical journal, vol 180 no.3 (2014). DOI: 10.1111/geoj.12045. p.249.
[8] Brooks, Rachel., Waters, Johanna. Student Mobilities, Migration and the Internationalization of Higher Education. (1st edn Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011) p.60.
(Social and cultural capital areterms used by Pierre Bourdieu and can in this context be understood as the symbolic value of credentials and profound knowledge of a certain (western) society).
[9] Ibid.
[10] Ibid.
[11] Perkins, Richard., Neumayer, Eric. Geographies of educational mobilities: exploring the uneven flows of international students. The geographical journal, vol 180 no.3 (2014). DOI: 10.1111/geoj.12045. p.250.
[12] Perkins, Richard., Neumayer, Eric. Geographies of educational mobilities: exploring the uneven flows of international students. The geographical journal, vol 180 no.3 (2014). DOI: 10.1111/geoj.12045. p.247.
[13] Ibid.
[14] Ibid.
[15] Sjödin, Daniel., Roman, Christine. Family practices among Swedish parents: extracurricular activities and social class. European Societies, 20:5 (2018), p.765. DOI: 10.1080/14616696.2018.1473622
[16] Börjesson, Mikael., Broady, Donald. The social Profile of Swedish Law Students: National Divisions and Transnational Strategies. Retfaerd, 3:114 (2006), p.82. http://retfaerd.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Retfaerd_114_2006_3_s80_107.pdf (Accessed 25 October 2019).
[17] Börjesson, Mikael., Broady, Donald. The social Profile of Swedish Law Students: National Divisions and Transnational Strategies. Retfaerd, 3:114 (2006), p.81. http://retfaerd.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Retfaerd_114_2006_3_s80_107.pdf (Accessed 25 October 2019).
[18] Ibid.
[19] Börjesson, Mikael., Broady, Donald. The social Profile of Swedish Law Students: National Divisions and Transnational Strategies. Retfaerd, 3:114 (2006), p.86. http://retfaerd.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Retfaerd_114_2006_3_s80_107.pdf (Accessed 25 October 2019).
[20] Ibid.
[21] Ibid.
[22] Weenink, Don. Cosmopolitanism as a Form of Capital: Parents Preparing their Children for a Globalizing World. Sociology. vol. 42 no.6 (2008), p.1090. https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.its.uu.se/stable/pdf/42857214.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A172e28bf2118744bd588f74388c2eeb8. (Accessed 25 October 2019).
[23] Ibid.
[24] Weenink, Don. Cosmopolitanism as a Form of Capital: Parents Preparing their Children for a Globalizing World. Sociology. vol. 42 no.6 (2008), p.1093. https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.its.uu.se/stable/pdf/42857214.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A172e28bf2118744bd588f74388c2eeb8. (Accessed 25 October 2019).
[25] Weenink, Don. Cosmopolitanism as a Form of Capital: Parents Preparing their Children for a Globalizing World. Sociology. vol. 42 no.6 (2008), p.1094. https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.its.uu.se/stable/pdf/42857214.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A172e28bf2118744bd588f74388c2eeb8. (Accessed 25 October 2019).
[26] Cavallar, Georg. Kant’s Embedded Cosmopolitanism. (1st edn Göttingen: De Gruyter, 2015). p.4.
[27] Weenink, Don. Cosmopolitanism as a Form of Capital: Parents Preparing their Children for a Globalizing World. Sociology. vol. 42 no.6 (2008), p.1097. https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.its.uu.se/stable/pdf/42857214.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A172e28bf2118744bd588f74388c2eeb8. (Accessed 25 October 2019).
[28] Weenink, Don. Cosmopolitanism as a Form of Capital: Parents Preparing their Children for a Globalizing World. Sociology. vol. 42 no.6 (2008), p.1098. https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.its.uu.se/stable/pdf/42857214.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A172e28bf2118744bd588f74388c2eeb8. (Accessed 25 October 2019).